Height+of+Imperialism

===** #1 Do you think there are any good reasons for one country to take control of another country? If so, under what circumstances do you think it would be justified? If not, why not? No cause ever country should have there own government. **=== ===** #2 Indicate which Western power (France, Great Britain, Holland, or the United States,) controlled each of the following countries in Southeast Asia at the end of the nine- tenth century. (If a country remained free of colonial rule, write “none.”): **===

=**The New Imperialism**= In the nineteenth century, a new phase of Western expansion into Asia and Africa began. Beginning in the 1880s, European nations began to compete for overseas territory. Imperialism, (the extension of a nation’s power over other lands) was not new. But the “New Imperialism” of the late nineteenth century was different. Previously, European expansion in Africa and Asia had been limited to setting up a few trading posts. Now European nations wanted direct control over vast territories. Europeans had various motives for imperialism. There was a strong eco- nomic motive. Europeans were looking for raw materials, such as rubber, oil, and tin, for their industries. They were also looking for new markets for their manufactured goods. They wanted more direct control over the areas with the raw materials and markets. There were also political motives. European nations were rivals. They tried to acquire colonies in order to gain an advan- tage over their rivals. Some people believed that a nation could not be great without colonies. Imperialism was also tied to Social Darwinism and racism. Racism is the belief that race determines traits and capabilities. Racists believe that particular races are superior or inferior to others. Finally, some Europeans had religious and humanitarian motives. They believed that Europeans had a moral responsibility to civilize primitive people. They called this responsibil- ity “the white man’s burden.” These people believed that Western nations should help the nations of Asia and Africa. To some, this meant bringing the Christian message to these nations. To others, it meant bringing the benefits of Western capitalism and democracy to these countries.

===** #3 How was the “New Imperialism” different from earlier expansion by European nations?: Now European nations wanted direct control over vast territories. **===

=**Colonial Takeover in Southeast Asia**= By 1900, nearly all of Southeast Asia was under Western rule. In 1819, Britain founded a new British colony on a small island at the tip of the Malay Peninsula called Singapore. Singapore soon became a major stopping point for steamships going to or from China. The next country to fall to the British was the kingdom of Burma. Britain wanted control of Burma in order to pro- tect its possessions in India. It also wanted a land route through Burma into South China. The French watched nervously as the British moved into Burma. France had missionaries in Vietnam. To keep the British from moving into Vietnam, the French government decided to force the Vietnamese to accept French pro- tection. The Vietnamese ruler gave up territories in the Mekong River delta. The French also occupied the city of Saigon. During the next 30 years, the French extended their control over the rest of the country. In 1884, France seized the city of Hanoi and later made the Vietnamese Empire a French protectorate (a political unit that depends on another government for its protection). In the 1880s, France also extended its control over Cambodia, Annam, Tonkin, and Laos. By 1887, France included all of its new possessions in a new Union of French Indochina. After the French conquest of Indochina, Thailand (then called Siam) was the only remaining free state in Southeast Asia. Two remarkable rulers, King Mongkut and his son King Chulalongkorn, were able to prevent the French and British from placing Thailand under colonial rule. Both kings promoted Western learning and had friendly relations with major European powers. In 1896, Britain and France agreed to maintain Thailand as an independent buffer state between their possessions in Southeast Asia. One more conquest took place in Southeast Asia at the end of the nine- teenth century. In 1898, during the Spanish-American War, United States naval forces under Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish fleet in Manila Bay in the Philippines. President William McKinley decided to turn the Philippines into an American colony. The Philippine Islands gave the United States a convenient jumping-off point for trade with China. Many Americans, including President McKinley, also believed that Western nations had a moral obligation to “civilize” other parts of the world. The Filipinos did not agree. Emilio Aguinaldo was the leader of a movement for independence in the Philippines. His guerrilla forces fought against U.S. troops to gain their inde- pendence, but they were defeated.

===** #4 How was Thailand able to remain free of colonial rule?: King Mongkut and his son King Chulalongkorn, were able to prevent the French and British from placing Thailand under colonial rule. Both kings promoted Western learning and had friendly relations with major European powers. **===

=**Colonial Regimes in Southeast Asia**= Western powers ruled their new colonial empires either by indirect or direct rule. Their goals were to exploit natural resources and open up markets for their manufactured goods. Sometimes a colonial power could accomplish its goals through cooperation with local rulers or political elites. In these cases, indirect rule was used. Local rulers were allowed to maintain their positions of authority and status. Indirect rule made it easier to gain access to an area’s natural resources. It also lowered the cost of government, because fewer offi- cials had to be trained. Indirect rule also had less impact on local culture. One example of indirect rule was in the Dutch East Indies. Officials of the com- pany allowed local landed aristocrats in the Dutch East Indies to control local government. These local elites maintained order and collected taxes. Indirect rule was not always possible, however. This was especially true when local rulers resisted colonial rule. In these cases, the local rulers were removed from power and replaced with a new set of officials brought from the mother country. This system is called direct rule. In Burma, for example, the monarchy opposed colonial rule. As a result, Great Britain abolished the monarchy and ruled the country directly through its colonial government in India. In Indochina, France used both direct and indirect rule. It imposed direct rule on the southern provinces in the Mekong delta, but the northern parts of Vietnam were governed as a protectorate. The emperor still ruled but had lit- tle power. France had a similar policy in Cambodia and Laos. Local rulers were left in charge, with French advisors to counsel them. To justify their conquests, Western nations had said they wanted to bring the blessings of Western civilization to their colonies. Many colonial powers said they wanted to teach the native peoples about the democratic process. However, many Westerners became afraid of giving native peoples political rights. They were afraid that the native peoples would want full participation in the government or even independence. The colonial powers did not want their colonies to develop their own industries. Colonial policy stressed the export of raw materials. In many cases, this policy led to some form of plantation agriculture, in which peasants worked as wage laborers on plantations owned by foreigners. Plantation own- ers kept the wages at poverty levels in order to increase the owners’ profits. Conditions on plantations were often so unhealthy that thousands died. Taxes were also a burden for peasants. But colonial rule did bring some benefits to Southeast Asia. Colonial governments built railroads and highways. In some countries, small growers of rubber, palm oil, coffee, tea, and spices were able to benefit from the development of an export market.

===** #5 How are direct and indirect rule different? Why was indirect rule not always used?: Indirect rule made it easier to gain access to an area’s natural resources, the local rulers were removed from power and replaced with a new set of officials brought from the mother country . **===

=**Resistance to Colonial Rule**= Many people in Southeast Asia were very unhappy about being ruled by Western powers. At first, resistance came from the ruling classes. In Burma, for example, the monarch himself fought against British rule. Sometimes, resistance to Western rule took the form of peasant revolts. Many peasants were driven off the land to make way for plantations. This led to peasant uprisings against the British colonial regime. Early resistance movements failed, but a new kind of resistance began to emerge at the beginning of the twentieth century. This resistance was based on nationalism. The leaders were often part of a new class that had been created by colonial rule—westernized intellectuals in the cities. This new class had been educated in Western-style schools. They were the first generation of Asians to understand the institu- tions and values of the West. Many spoke Western languages. At first, many of the leaders of these movements did not focus on the idea of nationhood. They simply tried to defend the economic interests or religious beliefs of the natives. In Burma, for example, students at the University of Rangoon formed an organization to protest British lack of respect for local religious traditions. Not until the 1930s did these resistance movements begin to demand national independence.

===** #6 What new form of resistance to colonial rule began to emerge at the beginning of the twentieth century?: The peasants **=== ===** #7 Has anyone ever told you that your traditions and customs were wrong? How would this make you feel?: NOPE. **=== ===** #8 List which European nations had claims in the following parts of Africa by 1914. West Africa, North Africa, Central Africa, East Africa, South Africa: **===

=**West Africa**= Between 1880 and 1900, European countries took control of nearly all of Africa. West Africa had been particularly affected by the slave trade, but that had begun to decline by 1800. By the 1890s, slavery had been abolished in all major countries of the world. As slavery declined, Europe became interested in other forms of trade. Europeans sold textiles and other manufactured goods in exchange for peanuts, timber, hides, and palm oil from West Africa. Early in the nineteenth century, the British set up settlements along the Gold Coast and in Sierra Leone. For a long time, most African nations were able to maintain their independ- ence. However, in 1874, Great Britain annexed (incorporate a country within a state) the west coastal states. They called this first British colony Gold Coast. At about the same time, Britain established a protectorate over warring groups in Nigeria. By 1900, France had added the huge area of French West Africa to its colonial empire, and Germany controlled Togo, Cameroon, German Southwest Africa, and German East Africa.

===** #9 What forms of trade replaced the slave trade in West Africa?: textiles and other manufactured goods in exchange for peanuts, timber, hides, and palm oil from West Africa. **===

=**North Africa**= Egypt had been part of the Ottoman Empire, but Egyptians began to seek their independence as the Ottoman Empire declined. In 1805, an officer of the Ottoman army named Muhammad Ali seized power and established a sepa- rate Egyptian state. During the next 30 years, he introduced reforms to bring Egypt into the modern world. Europeans were interested in Egypt because they wanted to build a canal east of Cairo to connect the Mediterranean and Red Seas. The Suez Canal was completed in 1869. The British were especially interested in the canal. They believed it was their “lifeline to India.” In 1875, Britain bought Egypt’s share in the Suez Canal. When an Egyptian army revolt against foreigners broke out in 1881, Britain suppressed the revolt. Egypt became a British protectorate in 1914. The British believed they should also control the Sudan, south of Egypt, in order to protect both Egypt and the Suez Canal. But Muslim troops under Muhammad Ahmad resisted. Not until 1898 were British troops able to seize the Sudan. The French also had colonies in North Africa. In 1879, the French govern- ment took control of Algeria. Two years later, France imposed a protectorate on Tunisia. In 1912, France also established a protectorate over much of Morocco. In 1911, Italy invaded and seized Turkish Tripoli, which it renamed Libya.

===** #10 Why was Egypt important to Europeans in the nineteenth century?: Cause they built the canals. **===

=**Central Africa**= Explorers, such as David Livingstone, aroused Europeans’ interest in the jungles of Central Africa. Livingstone arrived in 1841. For 30 years, he explored Central Africa. After Livingstone’s death in 1873, Henry Stanley carried on the work of exploration. In the 1870s, Stanley explored the Congo River and sailed down it to the Atlantic Ocean. He encouraged the British to send settlers to the Congo River basin. When Britain refused, he turned to King Leopold II of Belgium. King Leopold became the real driving force behind the colonization of Central Africa. In 1876, he hired Stanley to set up Belgian settlements in the Congo. Belgium ended up with the territories around the Congo River. France occupied the areas farther north.

===** #11 How did Europeans become interested in Central Africa?: to set up Belgian settlements in the Congo. **===

=**East Africa**= By 1885, Britain and Germany had become the chief rivals in East Africa. At first, the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck did not think that colonies were very important. But more and more Germans wanted an empire, so Bismarck became interested in colonialism for political reasons. Germany had possessions in West Africa, but it began to seek colonies in East Africa. The British were also interested in East Africa, because control of East Africa would connect the British Empire in Africa from Egypt in the north to South Africa. Portugal and Belgium also claimed parts of East Africa. To settle these conflicting claims, the Berlin Conference met in 1884 and 1885. The conference officially recognized both British and German claims in East Africa. Portugal received a clear claim on Mozambique. No Africans were present at this conference.

===** #12 What was the purpose of the Berlin Conference?: officially recognized both British and German claims in East Africa. **===

=**South Africa**= By 1865, the total white population in South Africa had risen to nearly 200,000. The descendants of the original Dutch settlers were called Boers or Afrikaners. They had occupied Cape Town and surrounding areas in South Africa since the 1600s. During the Napoleonic Wars, the British seized these lands from the Dutch. Afterward, the British encouraged settlers to come to this area, which they called Cape Colony. In the 1830s, the Boers fled north- ward to the region between the Orange and Vaal Rivers and to the region north of the Vaal River. In these areas, the Boers formed two independent republics—the Orange Free State and the Transvaal (later called the South African Republic). The Boers believed that God ordained white superiority. They put many of the indigenous (native to a region) peoples in these areas on reservations. The Boers had frequent battles with the indigenous Zulu people. In the late 1800s, the British became involved in conflicts with the Zulu, and the Zulu were defeated. In the 1880s, Cecil Rhodes, the prime minister of Cape Colony, influenced British policy in South Africa. Rhodes had started diamond and gold compa- nies that made him a fortune. He gained control of a territory north of the Transvaal, which he named Rhodesia after himself. In 1896, the British gov- ernment forced him to resign as prime minister of Cape Colony after it was discovered that he planned to overthrow the Boer government of the South African Republic. This was too late to avoid a war between the British and the Boers, however. This war was called the Boer War and lasted from 1899 to 1902. Boer women and children were put in detention camps, where as many as 20,000 died. Eventually, the British army won the war. In 1910, the British created an independent Union of South Africa. This new nation combined the old Cape Colony and the Boer republics. To appease the Boers, the British agreed that only whites and a few property-holding Africans could vote.

** #13 Who were the Boers?: The descendants of the original Dutch settlers **
=**Colonial Rule in Africa**= By 1914, Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Spain, and Portugal had divided up Africa. Only Liberia and Ethiopia remained free states. Native peoples who tried to resist were no match for the superior military power of the Europeans. The British used indirect rule in their territories in Africa. In some areas, the British simply asked a local ruler to accept British authority and to fly the British flag over official buildings. The system of indirect rule had one good feature: it did not disrupt local customs and institutions. However, it did have some unfortunate consequences. The system was basi- cally a fraud because British administrators made all major decisions. Another problem was that indirect rule kept the old African elites in power. In this way, it sowed the seeds for class and tribal tensions. Most other European nations used a form of direct rule. This was true in the French colonies. At the top was a French official, usually known as a governor- general. He ruled with the help of a bureaucracy in the capital city of the colony. The French believed in assimilating Africans into French culture rather than preserving native traditions. Africans were eligible to run for office and even to serve in the French National Assembly in Paris. A few were appointed to high positions in the colonial administration. ====#14 What were the good and bad features of indirect rule?: one good feature is it did not disrupt local customs and institutions. Bad; The system was basi- cally a fraud because British administrators made all major decisions. ====

=**Rise of African Nationalism**= A new class of leaders emerged in Africa by the beginning of the twentieth century. They were educated in colonial schools or in Western nations. The members of this new class admired Western civilization and sometimes dis- liked the ways of their own countries. Many resented foreigners and their lack of respect for African peoples. Westerners said that they believed in democ- racy, equality, and political freedom, but they did not apply these values in the colonies. There were few democratic institutions. For many Africans, colo- nialism had meant the loss of their farmlands or terrible jobs on plantations or in sweatshops and factories. Middle-class Africans did not suffer as much as poor peasants and plantation workers, but they also had complaints. They usually qualified only for menial jobs in the government or business. Their salaries were lower than those of Europeans in similar jobs. Europeans set up segregated clubs, schools, and churches. Europeans also had a habit of addressing natives by their first names or calling an adult male “boy.” For all of these reasons, educated Africans resented colonial rule and were deter- mined to assert their own nationality. During the first part of the twentieth century, resentment turned to action. Educated African peoples began to organize political parties and movements seeking the end of foreign rule.

===** #15 How did the new class of educated Africans feel about Western civilization and colonial rule?: **===

===** #16 Have you ever read any stories or poems by the British writer Rudyard Kipling? What insights do his stories and poems give us into life in India during the Age of Imperialism? NO **=== ===** #17 British rule in India had both benefits and costs for the Indian people. List four benefits and four costs of the British rule. **===

=**The Sepoy Mutiny**= Over the course of the eighteenth century, British power in India had increased while the power of the Mogul rulers had declined. The British East India Company was given power by the British government to rule India. The British had the attitude that their culture was superior to Indian culture. The British East India Company had its own soldiers and forts. It also hired Indian soldiers, known as sepoys, to protect its interests. In 1857, the Indians’ distrust of the British led to a revolt. The revolt was known to the British as the Great Rebellion or the Sepoy Mutiny. Indians call it the First War of Independence. The immediate cause of the revolt was a rumor that the British were issuing their Indian troops new bullets that were greased with cow and pig fat. The cow was sacred to Hindus. The pig was taboo to Muslims. A group of sepoys refused to load their rifles with the new bullets. When the British arrested them, the sepoys went on a rampage. They killed 50 Europeans. The revolt quickly spread. The Indian troops fought bravely but were not well organized. Rivalries between Hindus and Muslims kept Indians from working together. Within a year, the revolt was crushed. As a result of the revolt, the British Parliament transferred the powers of the East India Company directly to the British government. In 1876, Queen Victoria was given the title of Empress of India.

===** #18 What was the immediate cause of the Sepoy Mutiny? the Indians’ distrust of the British led to a revolt. **===

=**Colonial Rule**= The British government ruled India directly through a British official known as a viceroy (a governor who ruled as a representative of a monarch). British rule had both benefits and costs for the Indian people. There were four main benefits. British rule brought order and stability to India. It also led to a fairly honest and efficient government. A new school system was set up. Its goal was to train Indian children to serve in the government and army, but only elite, upper-class Indians could attend. Finally, the British brought rail- roads, the telegraph, and a postal service to India. British rule also had costs for the Indian people. British manufactured goods destroyed local industries. For example, the introduction of British textiles put thousands of women out of work and severely damaged the Indian textile industry. In rural areas, the British sent the zamindars to collect taxes. The zamindars took advantage of their new authority and increased taxes. This forced many peasants to become tenants or lose their land entirely. The British also encouraged many farmers to switch from growing food to growing cotton. As a result, food supplies could not keep up with the grow- ing population. Between 1800 and 1900, 30 million Indians died of starvation. Finally, British rule was degrading. The best jobs and the best housing were reserved for the British. Despite their education, the Indians were never con- sidered equals of the British. The British were also disrespectful of India’s cultural heritage.

===** #19 Why did 30 million Indians die of starvation between 1800 and 1900?: The zamindars took advantage of their new authority and increased taxes. **===

=**An Indian Nationalist Movement**= British racial attitudes led to the rise of an Indian nationalist movement. The first Indian nationalists were upper class and English-educated. Some were trained in British law and were members of the civil service. In 1885, a small group of Indians formed the Indian National Congress (INC). The INC did not demand immediate independence, but did call for a share in the gov- erning process. The INC had difficulties because of religious differences. Many of its leaders were Hindu and reflected Hindu concerns. Muslims began to call for the creation of a separate Muslim League to represent the interests of the Muslims in India.In 1915, Mohandas Gandhi brought new life to India’s struggle for inde- pendence. Gandhi was born in India but studied in London. He became a lawyer and went to South Africa. After he returned to India, he became active in the independence movement. He set up a movement based on nonviolent resistance. It had two goals: to force the British to improve the lot of the poor and to gain independence for India

===** #20 What were the goals of Gandhi’s movement?: to force the British to improve the lot of the poor and to gain independence for India **===

=**Colonial Indian Culture**= A cultural revival took place in India in the early nineteenth century. It began with the creation of a British college in Calcutta. A local publishing house was soon opened. It printed textbooks on various subjects, as well as grammars and dictionaries in the Indian languages. The revival soon spread to other regions of India. Indian novelists and poets began writing historical romances and epics. Most preferred to use their own regional languages rather than English. The most famous Indian author was Rabindranath Tagore. He was also a social reformer, spiritual leader, educator, and philoso- pher. Tagore’s life mission was to promote national pride. Tagore was more than just an Indian nationalist, however. He worked for human dignity, world peace, and the mutual understanding between East and West.

===** #21 How did the cultural revival in India in the nineteenth century begin?: It began with the creation of a British college in Calcutta. **===

===** #22 Have you ever been to Texas? Did you know that Texas was once an independent country? How did Texas become a U.S. state? Yes I have been to Texas, and I did not know that it was a independent country, and Texas became a U.S. State in December 291845. **=== ===** #23 Indicate which Latin American countries gained their independence in the following years. (1804, 1810, 1821, 1822, 1823) **===

=**Nationalist Revolts**= Social classes divided colonial Latin America. At the top were peninsulares, who held all of the important positions. Peninsulares were Spanish and Portuguese officials who resided temporarily in Latin America for political and economic gain and then returned to their mother countries. Creoles were descendants of Europeans born in Latin America and lived there permanently. They controlled land and business but were regarded as second class citizens by peninsulares. Mestizos (people of European and Indian descent) were the largest group but worked as servants or laborers.Creoles found the principles of equality of all people, free trade, and free press very attractive. They deeply resented the peninsulares. The creole elites began to denounce the rule of the Spanish and Portuguese. When Napoleon overthrew the monarchies of Spain and Portugal, the authority of the Spanish and Portuguese in their colonies was weakened. Between 1807 and 1825, revo- lutionary movements were able to succeed against the Spanish and Portuguese. Most of Latin America became independent.Before these revolts, an unusual revolution took place in the French colony of Saint Domingue on the island of Hispaniola. Led by François-Dominique Toussaint-Louverture, more than a hundred thousand slaves revolted and took control of Hispaniola. On January 1, 1804, the western part of Hispaniola (now called Haiti) announced its freedom and became the first independent state in Latin America.Beginning in 1810, Mexico also experienced a revolt. The first real hero of Mexican independence was Miguel Hidalgo, a parish priest. Hidalgo had studied the French Revolution and encouraged the local Indians and mestizos to free themselves from the Spanish. On September 16, 1810, a crowd of Indians and mestizos formed a mob army to attack the Spaniards. The revolt was crushed, and Hidalgo was sentenced to death, but September 16 is still remembered as Mexico’s Independence Day. The creoles and peninsulares were both frightened by the Indians and mestizos. They cooperated in defeating the revolutionaries. Then the creoles and peninsulares decided to overthrow Spanish rule to preserve their own power. They selected a creole military leader, Agustín de Iturbide, as their leader. In 1821, Mexico declared its inde- pendence from Spain. Iturbide named himself emperor in 1822 but was deposed in 1823. Mexico then became a republic.José de San Martín of Argentina and Simón Bolívar of Venezuela have been called the “Liberators of South America.” They led revolutions throughout the continent. San Martín believed that the Spaniards must be removed from all of South America if any South American nation was to be free. By 1810, his forces had liberated Argentina. Bolívar began the struggle for independence in Venezuela and then went on to lead revolts in New Granada (Colombia) and Ecuador. In January 1817, San Martín led his forces over the Andes to attack the Spanish in Chile. The Spanish were badly defeated at the Battle of Chacabuco on February 12, 1817. Then San Martín moved on to Peru, where he was joined by Bolívar and his forces. The last significant Spanish army was crushed at Ayacucho on December 9, 1824. By the end of 1824, Peru, Uruguay, Paraguay, Colombia, Venezuela, Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile had all become free of Spain. Earlier, in 1822, Brazil had gained its independence from Portugal. The Central American states had become independent in 1823. In 1838 and 1839, they divided into five republics: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Costa Rica, and Nicaragua.There was still one threat to the independence of the Latin American states. Members of the Concert of Europe wanted to use troops to restore Spanish con- trol of Latin America. The British disagreed, because they wanted to trade with Latin America. They joined with the United States against any European moves in Latin America. In 1823, United States President James Monroe issued the Monroe Doctrine. He guaranteed the independence of the new Latin American nations and warned against any European intervention in the Americas.

** #24 Who were the “Liberators of South America”?: South America. **
=**Difficulties of Nation Building**= The new Latin American nations had serious problems after they gained their independence. Many people had been killed, and much livestock and property had been destroyed. The new nations were not sure of their exact boundaries and went to war with each other to settle border disputes. Poor roads, a lack of railroads, thick jungles, and mountains were also problems. They made communication, transportation, and national unity difficult.Soon after independence, strong leaders known as caudillos came into power in many countries. Caudillos ruled chiefly by military force and were usually supported by large landowners. Some caudillos were modernizers who built roads, canals, ports, and schools. Others were destructive. Antonio López de Santa Anna, for example, ruled Mexico from 1833 to 1855. He mis- used state funds, stopped reforms, and created chaos. In 1835, American settlers in the Mexican state of Texas revolted against Santa Anna’s rule. Texas gained its independence in 1836 and United States statehood in 1845. War between Mexico and the United States soon followed (1846–1848). Mexico was defeated and lost almost one-half of its territory to the United States in the Mexican War. Santa Anna’s rule was followed by a period of reform from 1855 to 1876. This era was dominated by Benito Juárez. He brought liberal reforms to Mexico, including separation of church and state, land distribution to the poor, and an educational system for all of Mexico.Some caudillos, such as Juan Manual de Rosas in Argentina, were sup- ported by the masses and brought about radical change. Unfortunately, the caudillo’s authority depended on his personal power. When he died or lost power, civil wars for control of the country often erupted.Great Britain now dominated the Latin American economy. British mer- chants moved into Latin America in large numbers. Latin America continued to serve as a source of raw materials and food for the industrial nations of Europe and the United States. Exports included wheat, tobacco, wool, sugar, coffee, and hides. Manufactured goods were imported, especially textiles. The emphasis on exporting raw materials and importing manufactured goods meant that the Latin American economy continued to be dominated by foreigners.A fundamental problem for all of the new Latin American nations was the domination of society by large landowners. Their estates were often so large that they could not be farmed efficiently. Land was the basis of wealth, social prestige, and political power. The large landowners ran governments and con- trolled courts. They made huge profits by growing export crops, such as coffee. The masses had no land to grow basic food crops and experienced ter- rible poverty.

===** #25 In what ways were large landowners a fundamental problem for the new Latin American nations?: Many people had been killed, and much livestock and property had been destroyed. **===

=**Political Change in Latin America**= After 1870, Latin American governments wrote constitutions similar to those of the United States and European democracies. However, the large landowners limited voting rights in order to keep their power.By 1900, the United States had begun to interfere in the affairs of many Latin American nations. As a result of the Spanish-American War (1898), Cuba became a United States protectorate, and Puerto Rico was annexed to the United States. In 1903, the United States supported a rebellion that made it possible for Panama to separate itself from Colombia. In return, the United States was granted control of a strip of land 10 miles wide that ran from coast to coast in Panama. The United States built the Panama Canal there.Americans began to invest in Latin America. Beginning in 1898, American military forces were sent to Cuba, Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic to protect American interests. Some of these troops remained for many years. Many Latin Americans began to resent U.S. interference.In some countries, large landowners supported dictators who looked out for their interests. Porfirio Díaz, for example, ruled Mexico between 1877 and 1911. He came to power with the support of the army, foreign capitalists, large landowners, and the Catholic Church. During his reign, the wages of workers declined. 95 percent of the rural population owned no land. About a thousand families owned almost all of Mexico. After Díaz was forced from power, Emiliano Zapata aroused the landless peasants and began to seize the estates of wealthy landowners. Between 1910 and 1920, the Mexican Revolution caused great damage to the Mexican economy. Finally, a new constitution was enacted in 1917. It set up a government led by a president. It also created land-reform policies, set limits on foreign investments, and had an agenda to help the workers.

===** #26 Why did the United States support the rebellion in Panama?: to make it possible for Panama to separate itself from Colombia. **===

=**Economic Change in Latin America**= After 1870, a period of prosperity began in Latin America. It was based to a large extent on the export of a few basic items. These included wheat and beef from Argentina, coffee from Brazil, coffee and bananas from Central America, and sugar and silver from Peru. After 1900, Latin Americans also increased their own industrialization, especially by building textile, food-processing, and construction material factories.One result of this prosperity was growth in the middle sectors (divisions) of Latin American society. These sectors, which included lawyers, merchants, shopkeepers, businesspeople, schoolteachers, professors, bureaucrats, and military officers, continued to expand after 1900. These middle-class Latin Americans lived in the cities, believed in education, and saw the United States as a model, especially in regard to industrialization. They sought liberal reform, not revolution. Once they had the right to vote, they usually sided with the landholding elites.

===** #27 What were some characteristics of middle-class Latin Americans?: lived in the cities, believed in education, and saw the United States as a model, especially in regard to industrialization. **===